Professional portal dedicated to the iron ore pelletizing industry, technical research, and global metallurgy supply chains. Explore insights on pellets and bentonite. Iron Ore Mining → Beneficiation → Pelletizing → Induration → High-Quality Pellets → Path to Green Energy 1/11 An information and production portal dedicated to the world of iron ore pellets—a key component of modern metallurgy. Here you'll find everything about the production technology, properties, and applications of pellets, as well as current industry news, analytical articles, professional books, videos, and photo galleries from production sites. We combine knowledge, experience, and innovation to show how the foundation of strong steel—iron ore pellets—is born. Follow the latest trends, discover new technologies, and learn more about the people and companies shaping the future of the mining and metals industry. RAW MATERIALS Iron ore concentrate Bentonite limestone Lime Solid fuel Organic polymer Colemanite MIXING OF CHARGE MATERIALS Mixing PRODUCTION OF GREEN PELLETS Main components of the pelletizing process Bulk density and porosity Moisture content and lumpability Specific surface area Constancy of composition Pelletizing of the charge Green pellets Transportation, screening and stacking PRODUCTION OF FIRED PELLETS General overview Drying of pellets Heating of pellets Firing of pellets Features of the firing machine operation Heat balance Pellets transformation during reduction Methods for determining the quality of pellets Pellet stickiness MAIN FACTORS AFFECTING THE PROPERTIES OF PELLETS Influence of the ore component Zonal structure of pellets Influence of pellet size Influence of pellet basicity Properties of pellets by degree of importance Pellets wearability Application of biofuels SOME ASPECTS OF PRODUCT QUALITY MANAGEMENT Quality management GENERAL INFORMATION World producers of iron ore pellets Global DRI/HBI manufacturers World producers of bentonite Global equipment manufacturers All materials or links to publications are taken from publicly available sources on the internet, social networks, or kindly provided by our users with their consent for publication on this site.

Mixing One of the conditions for obtaining conditioned raw and fired pellets with specified physical and chemical characteristics is the organization of high-quality averaging of raw materials and obtaining a homogeneous composition of the charge. As a result of the mixing process in the mixing unit, there is a mutual movement of particles of various components, which are separate before mixing. In an ideal state after mixing, in any selected sample in the volume of the mixture, the ratio of the components must correspond to the specified ratio of the components. For example, if three components of the charge are mixed, the masses of which are related as integers a:b:c, then in any selected sample taken at an arbitrary point, the masses after ideal mixing must correspond to the values a:b:c. However, the presence of numerous factors affecting the movement and averaging of particles does not allow achieving an ideal distribution of each component in the volume of the charge. Three types of main factors affecting the quality of mixing of components can be distinguished: a. mixing methods (spraying, pouring, fluidized bed, layering of elements); b. design features of the mixer (design of the mixing device, degree of filling, speed, nature of circulation); c. physicochemical properties of materials (granulometric composition, ratio of components, bulk density, coefficient of internal friction); For simplicity of assessing the quality of mixing materials and assessing one random variable, the mixture is conventionally considered two-component. For this purpose, one component is isolated from the mixture, which is the key one, and the remaining components are combined into the second conventional component. The quality of the resulting mixture is judged by the degree of distribution of the key component in the mass of the second conventional component. To calculate the degree of mixing I based on the analysis of the samples taken. various formulas are used. The most commonly used formula is: n – number of samples taken, pieces; X1, X2 – relative concentrations of the samples taken calculated using the formula, Fi, Fi0 – volume fractions of the analyzed component in the 1st sample and in the entire apparatus, respectively; Samples from the material flow at the outlet of the continuous mixer should be taken at equal and relatively short intervals. The minimum number of samples taken should be at least 20pieces, the weight of one sample taken is at least 100grams. The main method of analyzing samples of a mixture of bulk materials for the content of a key component in them is the chemical method. The more components of the batch are used, the more they differ in volumetric content by weight in the batch volume and the differences in their physical and chemical properties, and the better the mixing operation of all components of the batch should be organized before feeding to pelletizing for the production of green pellets in order to compensate for the chemical composition, grain size distribution, moisture, specific surface area, grain shape in the entire pellet volume. This is especially important when using organic binders or other additives that are introduced into the batch in small quantities of 50-500grams per ton of pellets in dry or liquid form. The dosage of materials before mixing must be done in the following sequence – concentrate, limestone, bentonite, additives or organic binder. Mixing of the charge is carried out in drum, rotary, screw, vortex or intensive mixers. If necessary, the coefficient of the degree of mixing of the charge is determined. In production conditions, this is done extremely rarely, since each installed type of mixing equipment in the process flow chart corresponds to a certain value of the coefficient of the degree of mixing of the charge (table). As can be seen from the table, the greatest homogeneity of the charge of more than 95% is provided by intensive mixers of the charge, having in their design a rotating tank for the charge and several rotating tools of swirls located in this tank. Definitely, if drum or rotary mixers are installed in the chain, they require replacement. The latest designs of mixers provide elements that allow for direct feeding of organic or other additives into them, as well as water, to regulate the humidity of the charge. High-quality mixing of materials, all other factors being equal, allows for reducing the consumption of bentonite, increasing the strength characteristics of raw pellets and reducing the yield of substandard classes for small and large fractions.

Organic polymers Organic polymers are used as activators. Depressants, foaming agents in concentrate flotation, dehydrating agents in the filtration of finely ground concentrates, and as binding agents in the production of pellets. Involvement of poor ores in processing and requirements of consumers to increase the iron content in concentrate to more than 68.0% necessitates additional regrinding of ore to a content of 0.056mm class of more than 98.5%. Such a result can be achieved either by modernizing the entire beneficiation stage with significant capital expenditures or without significant expenditures using operational impacts when working at reduced loads of the grinding sections when working according to a 3-stage beneficiation scheme with an increase in the efficiency of grinding the ore mass or by working sections according to a 4-stage beneficiation scheme using the third grinding stage of another similar section as the fourth stage. The concentrate obtained by such methods with a content of 0.056mm class of more than 98.5% and a specific surface area of more than 2400-2600cm2/gram cannot be filtered to the moisture content required for pellet production – 8.8-9.8% by conventional filtration methods - vacuum filters or ceramic filters. The main reason for the decrease in the efficiency of moisture removal is the increase in the content of fine particles of the concentrate of class 0.02mm in the pulp fed to filtration, which leads to clogging of the filter elements of the filter cloth or ceramic sectors. For normal filtration of finely ground concentrate, it is necessary to install press filtration equipment, which is associated with the reconstruction of the entire filtration section and significant capital costs. One of the operational options for solving this problem was the use of polymer dehydrating reagents, which found their application in mining and processing plants built 40-60years ago and not having a press filtration section. The dehydrating reagent is added to the pulp separator in the amount of 100-160grams per ton of concentrate immediately before filtration and allows obtaining a concentrate with a moisture content of 9.4-10.0%. However, the concentrate treated with these reagents loses some of its hydrophilic properties due to a decrease in the uniform distribution of water molecules in the concentrate volume, that is, local areas appear where moisture is accumulated and areas where the moisture content is lower. Uneven distribution of moisture in the material leads to a decrease in the concentrate lumpability. The use of this concentrate has a negative effect on the properties of raw pellets (strength and granulometry composition) and its use for pelletizing is not recommended. When using concentrates obtained with the use of dehydrators, additional measures are required to stabilize the quality of raw pellets - increased consumption of bentonite and additional moistening of the batch during pellet production. The granulometric composition of the obtained raw pellets after the pelletizer shifts towards an increase in the fine class of -10mm by 1.5-2times, and in the fired pellets after screening, the amount of screenings of class -6.3mm increases by 50-100%. Another application of polymers is as a binder in the production of pellets. Over a long period of time, various types of organic binders have been developed and tested in laboratory and industrial conditions, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, modified starch, modified humic acid, polyacrylamide, lignin sulfonate, guar gum, molasses, and others. These organic substances are more water-soluble and cementable, which significantly improves the sphericity and low-temperature strength of pellets. The binding action of the organic binder is due to the action of adhesion, cohesion and diffusion forces. The organic binder absorbs water and forms a solution with a certain viscosity, which not only wraps or fills the iron ore particles, but also improves the interaction force between the polymer and the iron ore through the formation of hydrogen bonds, electrostatic attraction and the exchange of ligand (an atom, ion or molecule bound to another atom (acceptor) by donor-acceptor interaction) with the mineral surface through functional hydroxyl and carboxyl groups. At the same time, the organic binder improves the diffusion of the aqueous solution on the iron ore surface, so that the organic binder can fully adhere to the iron ore in an effective time and increase the granulation speed. However, organic binders are expensive materials and are difficult to mix with granulated raw materials due to their small amount in the batch. In addition, organic binders have low thermal stability and lose their purpose during drying and preheating, which leads to low thermal shock temperatures, the formation of a large number of residual pores and a decrease in the strength of preheated and fired pellets. The main reason for the high-temperature rupture of pellets prepared with the addition of organic binder is that the organic polymer hinders the diffusion of the internal vapor of the pellet to the surface over time, resulting in excessive internal vapor pressure, uneven surface evaporation and internal diffusion in the granules. The insufficient heat resistance of the pellets is mainly due to the following two reasons: a. organic polymers in the form of hydrocarbons are not stable to heating and easily volatilize at high temperatures, leaving a large number of pores inside the pellets; b. organic polymers do not contain inorganic components and almost do not form a liquid phase at high temperatures, which leads to the absence of consolidation of the solid phase between mineral particles; To compensate for the negative factors introduced by organic polymers, it is necessary to add an inorganic binder, such as bentonite or borates, which promotes solid-phase binding of mineral particles and the formation of a sufficient amount of high-temperature liquid phase inside the pellet, which makes the fired pellets stronger. If inorganic or mineral binders additionally change the chemical composition of pellets and can affect the metallurgical properties of pellets, then organic binders do not change the chemical and mineralogical composition of pellets, since they burn out and evaporate during heating and firing. There are many well-known companies (BASF, AKZONOBEL, SNF, KEMIRA, CLARIANT, EAST-WEST-DRIDGE s.r.o.) that produce polymers (ALCOTAC, PERIDUR, FLOFORM, KEMPEL, FLOTICOR, FERROFORM) for pelletizing based on modified anionic polyacrylamides and various types of methylcellulose. However, the use of these reagents is limited by their high cost. High-quality polymers for pelletizing cost about 3-4 euros per 1 kg. There are also alternative binders based on starch, bitumen and cellulose. The purpose of using polymers is to reduce or eliminate the use of bentonite, as a material that introduces an additional amount of silicon oxide into the batch and reduces the iron content in the concentrate. The polymer consumption is 50-250grams/ton of concentrate when used together with bentonite and reaches 0.5-2kg/ton when replacing bentonite. Today, there is no universal polymer binder that would satisfy all iron ore pellet manufacturers. The selection and testing of a particular additive should be decided experimentally at a specific pelletizing plant, based on the requirements for the physical, chemical and metallurgical properties of the pellets. When choosing any inorganic or polymeric additive, the following factors must be taken into account: a. mineralogical properties of iron ore concentrate; b. requirements for quality indicators of the finished product (iron content, individual components of gangue, strength and metallurgical properties); c. technological capabilities of a specific production; d. cost and manufacturability of the proposed material;

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Quality management Quality and quality management system offer a set of operations that unite all phases of the production process - product policy, planning, marketing, sales, personnel, innovation and technology - so that the enterprise can successfully operate in the market. Quality is: a. the key aspect for making a purchase for the most important customers. Losing an order because of insufficient quality is much worse than because of an excessively high price: you can lose the customer forever; b. leads to strengthening the company's position in the market. In open markets, products become increasingly interchangeable. The level of quality becomes decisive; c. the main tool for reducing costs. It is always cheaper to produce correctly and the first time than to correct a mistake later; The implementation of a product quality management system is the most important criterion for the production of high-quality pellets. Pelletizing plants are complex production facilities that include a raw material receiving and warehousing department (limestone, bentonite, coal), additive crushing and grinding departments, iron ore concentrate receiving systems from the beneficiation plant or warehouses, batch mixing departments, pelletizing, roasting, screening, warehousing and shipping finished pellets, a process fan department and an exhaust gas cleaning section. Each section has its own process cycle that contains process indicators whose values affect the quality indicators of the final product. The standard quality management system regulates the main quality indicators of commercial pellets (e.g. compressive strength, impact strength, abrasion resistance, grain size distribution, fines content and chemical composition). It is believed that the fulfillment of these indicators confirms the quality component of the produced and shipped pellets. However, product inspection at the end of the process is too late and expensive an approach. The correct ideology is to move from detecting defects in manufactured products to reducing or eliminating them during the life cycle of the manufacturing process of these products. A preventive approach to quality issues is achieved by analyzing the technological process, monitoring and improving it. A technological process is defined as a set of conditions or a set of causes working together to obtain a given result. Typically, it is a mixture of machines, methods, materials and people. Measurements are used to monitor technological processes and take measures to minimize the possibility of producing defective products or providing inadequate services to the customer. The main factors causing violations of production technology are: a. use of raw material, materials and semi-finished products that do not meet the requirements of the enterprise's regulatory and technical documentation and the requirements of international standards; b. operation of equipment with deviations from design requirements, technology requirements, technical documentation and established key parameters of technology and equipment; c. work on faulty equipment and use of faulty tools; d. absence of process control and management devices provided for by the technology, as well as faulty ones or those that have not been verified within the time established by the regulations; e. violation of the frequency of recording the established key parameters of technology and equipment; The ideology of the quality system includes preventive management of processes at all stages of production. That is, the products must be obtained not only with the appropriate quality characteristics, but also without deviations from the established parameters of technology and equipment at all stages of pellet production. In essence, technology is a set of factors (indicators), the correct observance of which will allow obtaining the required final result. At the same time, some indicators affect the stability of the process more than others. Such parameters are defined as key parameters of technology and equipment. The following structural approaches are implemented in the modern quality management system for produced pellets: a. the concept of key parameters of technology and equipment (KPT&E) is introduced; b. the concept of products accepted from the first presentation is introduced; Fulfillment of key parameters of technology and equipment allows conducting the technological process within certain limits that do not allow at each stage of the process to produce a negative impact on the quality of the final product. The parameters of the KPT&E are formed on the basis of the following approach: a. the key parameter that directly affects the final result is determined based on the current regulatory documentation governing this parameter; b. the acceptance criteria for each key parameter are determined; c. the method and frequency of monitoring the key parameter are determined; d. the form of recording the key parameter and the person responsible for monitoring the values of each indicator are determined; e. the actions of the personnel in the event of a deviation of the key parameter from the required established values are determined; Pellet production is associated with many factors that affect the technological process. These are factors related to the nature and properties of the materials themselves, the method and conditions of their preparation, and factors directly related to the operation of the main technological equipment and the roasting machine itself. Therefore, the values of the key parameters of the technological process are also characterized by certain deviations. Each type of deviation is assigned a specific position and marker color. Each marker color corresponds to a green, yellow and red zone: a. in which there is no violation of the technology and the process is carried out in accordance with the deviation limits established by the regulatory documentation - no action is taken (green marker); b. in which the technological process is in the instability zone - it is necessary to take measures to stabilize the parameters, otherwise there is a certain probability of releasing low-quality products (yellow marker); c. in which there is a fundamental violation of the technological process or a critical equipment failure, leading with a high degree of probability to the release of products that do not meet the established requirements for one or more parameters - it is necessary to immediately take measures to stabilize the parameters to the values established by the regulatory documentation or, if it is impossible to promptly respond to stabilize the parameter, stop the process to eliminate the causes that caused this discrepancy (red marker); Since the process instability zone (yellow zone) is a buffer zone and is located between the comfort zone (green zone) and the discomfort zone (red zone), in practice it is customary to select it from the boundary values of the green zone deviations. The deviation range of the yellow zone must be sufficient both in terms of the value and the time interval for timely response by personnel. In some processes, only the green and red zone deviation gradation is used. This practice is mainly used when reflecting the operation of equipment - (e.g. works/does not work, complies/does not comply). The boundaries of the zones should not intersect and be without breaks (gaps) when determining the boundaries. The list of KPT&E and the parameters of the deviation boundaries are periodically supplemented and adjusted depending on the analysis of the work for the reporting period (e.g. quarter), when changing the requirements of the technological process. using new technologies, materials and equipment. An example of the key parameters of the KPT&E and deviations by zones is given in figure. Each enterprise producing pellets, depending on the requirements of the technology and the equipment used, independently determines and establishes a list of the necessary key parameters of the technology and equipment sufficient to control the technological processes and equipment. Different enterprises have different technical bases (automation of production, availability of control devices) and availability of personnel. Some of the KPT&E parameters are determined by automation systems online (for example, temperature, pressure, vacuum, layer height, etc.), other parameters require direct human participation for periodic manual sampling and obtaining the result (compressive strength, abrasion resistance, etc.). The higher the degree of automation of the key parameters, the more stable the control system is, excluding the influence of the human factor. In an ideal solution, with the correct selection of key parameters describing the technological process and their full automation, there is practically no need for a significant number of quality control personnel at the enterprise. That is, if our process is carried out in the zones of green and yellow markers, we can be sure that we will receive pellets of the specified quality at the output without additional product control methods. The concept of products accepted on first presentation is directly related to the key parameters of the KPT&E. The term characterizes the production of pellets in compliance with the requirements established by the KPT&E and was introduced to assess the quality of manufactured products throughout the entire process. Pellets are considered to be of excellent quality if they are produced without violating the parameters of the KPT&E, i.e. the first presentation is considered equal to 100%. The formula for calculating the level of products accepted on first presentation for pellet plants is given below: Presented – quantity of products presented for certification, t; KPT&E – quantity of products manufactured in violation (red marker) of KPT&E parameters, t; The level of products accepted at the first presentation is an important factor in assessing and motivating the shop staff to produce high-quality products and is a target factor influencing the remuneration of shop staff, from line personnel to the head of the enterprise. The next important step of the quality management system after identifying deviations of key parameters of technology and equipment is to identify the root causes that caused these violations, conduct analyses for each violation and develop technical and organizational measures to reduce or prevent their recurrence. All deviations of the KPT&E are divided by types of violations. Analysis of violations is carried out with all deviations that fall into the red zone. Analysis is carried out by technical specialists of the enterprise with the participation of the personnel who committed this violation. The activities developed based on the results of the analyses must contain specific deadlines for implementation, the final result of implementation and clear methods of monitoring and recording the results. All analyses of violations with proposed measures to prevent them are systematized and form a single knowledge base that allows for training of current and new personnel of the enterprise and continuous improvement of the technological process. Continuous monitoring of the functioning of the pellet production quality system is carried out through technological inspections and audits. As a result of technological inspections, cases of violation of regulatory documentation requirements, deviations of parameters from established values are identified, bottlenecks of the technological process are determined and measures are developed to eliminate them and improve the technological process. The optimal frequency of technological inspections is once a week. Technological inspections should cover all sections of the workshop. Particular emphasis should be placed on areas where systematic deviations in the parameters of the KPT&E and violations of the technological process are periodically identified. The result of the technological inspection is a technological protocol reflecting violations, methods and terms of their elimination, as well as recommendations for improving the technological process. The audit system covers the entire range of functioning of the quality system and is carried out to confirm the current quality system at the enterprise to the requirements of ISO 9001. The system's performance is assessed according to the "Quality management process assessment matrix", which includes the following sections: a. working with KPT&E; b. debriefings; c. analysis of the effectiveness of the developed activities; d. audits and walk-throughs; e. knowledge base; f. achieving goals; g. working with key clients; h. working with complaints; Each section of the matrix is assessed on a 5-point scale. For the functioning of the quality system with the reflection of the cause-and-effect relationship of the occurrence of deviations in the technological process, a quality guide is formed. The main provisions of this document are: a. the basis for analyzing the causes of quality incidents; b. a reference book of all current regulatory and technological documentation for the enterprise; c. the basis for training technological personnel; d. involving enterprise personnel in the functioning of the quality system; The structure of the guide consists of two parts – a static part and a dynamic part, which includes the following sections: Static section: a. general characteristics of the workshop; b. production flow chart; c. production apparatus chain chart; d. list of main process equipment for which quality control and monitoring parameters have been established; e. chart of location of quality control and monitoring points; f. current list of quality control and monitoring parameters indicating criteria for each indicator and personnel actions in case of deviations; g. current references to all regulatory documents governing the quality management process; Dynamic section: a. ABC analysis of the reasons for the release of non-conforming products. deviations of the KPT&E (for a month, quarte, year) by type, shift; b. dynamics of the enterprise indicators set as targets with the allocation of the share of achieved goals; The guide is subject to monthly updating with the dynamic and static parts. If the dynamics of one or more indicators deteriorate from the previous month, new corrective measures must be developed. The knowledge base is a global system document structuring all elements of quality management and freely available at the enterprise for the personnel involved in the technological process. It includes current versions of the KPT&E, regulatory documents, quality guides, materials on quality incident analysis and measures to eliminate them, statistics on violations and first presentation and serves as a basis for personnel training and the functioning of the quality management system at the enterprise. It is in electronic form and is updated monthly. The stages of implementing the quality management system at the enterprise are given in figure.

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Production of iron ore pellets Read more Read more Some features of cooling and storage of pellets Read more Meyer, K., (1980) “Pelletizing of Iron Ores” Springer-Verlag, Berlin Read more Iron Ore: Mineralogy, Processing and Environmental Sustainability Read more Conceptual Aspects Concerning the Pelletizing of Iron Ores Read more Some features of induration of pellets Read more

Main components of the pelletizing process One of the main tasks of obtaining fired pellets with specified strength characteristics is the correct organization of the production of green pellets and their placement on the induration machine. To obtain green pellets with a specified granulometric composition and strength characteristics, the following requirements for the pelletizing process must be met: preparation of the batch components, high-quality dosing and mixing of the batch, production of the green pellets themselves in a disc or drum pelletizer, technology for delivering finished green pellets tothe induration machine, screening and placement on induration trolleys. There are several main groups of factors influencing the pelletizing process, distributed according to their importance: a. material dependent factors - chemical properties of primary ores, wettability, absorption capacity related to porosity; b. surface dependent factors - such as internal structure of iron ore minerals and gangue, particle size, particle size distribution, particle shape; c. physical forces such as Van der Waals forces, magnetic and electrostatic forces; d. capillary forces and surface tension when adding liquid binders such as water or other reagents in liquid form at different stages of obtaining iron ore prepared raw materials (amines in flotation, dehydrators in filtration); Some of them are variable factors (particle shape and size, amount of added liquid, type of equipment used to obtain green pellets, addition of various binders and fluxing additives). They allow the raw material to be granulated to be adapted to the relevant process requirements, and they must be controlled when obtaining green pellets. Others, initially embedded in the nature of a given iron ore material, are not subject to change during the pelletizing process and affect the pelletizing process as a whole. Their influence can be reduced only by correctly managing the variable factors. The stages of green pellet formation are shown in figure.

Pellet stickiness Pellets in direct reduction can sinter into druse and conglomerates, which leads to poor material flow and the formation of gas channels, which are short paths for the reducing gas through the ferrous clusters formed, which leads to poor use of the reducing gas and thereby increases fuel consumption. In the direct reduction process using the MIDREX and HYL technology, preventing the formation of conglomerates is one of the main factors for the normal operation of the plant. The tendency of pellets to stick limits the upper limit of temperatures at which these thermal units can operate and, as a result, imposes certain restrictions on increasing the productivity of the plants. If the granules are practically not prone to sticking, it is possible to increase the reduction temperature and, consequently, the productivity. High temperatures are necessary to reduce the destruction of pellets and reoxidation of the reduced product. To prevent this process, pellets are coated with anti-sticking materials. This procedure is carried out mainly at pellet plants and sometimes directly at the customer's site, and ideally in both cases. Cement, lime, olivine solutions of a certain concentration with an admixture of bentonite are used as such a coating. Bentonite in these solutions is used as a binding element and is dosed with the coating material in a ratio of 1 part bentonite to 7-8 parts coating material. Before preparing the aqueous emulsion solution, bentonite and coating materials are crushed to a size class of 0.056mm - 84-92%. The average consumption of coating material per ton of pellets is 2-3kg/t. The applied coatings must withstand the transportation of pellets to the consumer, taking into account warehousing, storage and loading and unloading operations. Sometimes blast furnace pellet manufacturers also use passivation, which reduces sticking and the amount of dry blast furnace dust by reducing pellet dust formation and improves gas utilization by reducing the resistance of the charge to the gas flow. The higher the reduction temperature (in order to increase the unit's productivity), the more prone the pellets are to form conglomerates, the higher the requirements are for the characteristics of the pellets themselves in terms of cluster formation and the properties of the non-stick coatings used. If an increase in the iron content in pellets leads to an increase in sticking, then an increase in the content of silicon oxide and magnesium oxide reduces it (diagrams). An increase in basicity also reduces the tendency of granules to stick together, but is a limiting link in terms of iron content in pellets. The assessment of the possibility of pellet clustering during direct reduction is carried out according to the ISO 11256 test method. The conglomeration index is determined as a percentage and is the ratio of the conglomerate mass after several softening operations to the total mass of the sample after reduction. mr – total weight of the sample after restoration, grams mс,i – mass of conglomerate after i-th softening operations, grams An example of requirements for the quality characteristics of BF and DR pellets is given in annex1 . To assess the suitability of a certain type of pellets for blast furnace processing or metallization units, at the first stage, pellet samples are taken from the production process and sent to specialized laboratories (for example, SGA) for a comprehensive determination of all physical and metallurgical properties. Based on the test results, further steps are determined. If the indicators deviate from the generally accepted values, it is necessary to conduct additional adjustment tests, including involving specialized research laboratories or scientific centers (Metso, Primetals Technologies, Midrex, Corem and others). When designing firing machines, research work is carried out to assess the correctness of the choice of the useful sintering area for a certain volume of pellet production with specified quality characteristics. According to the established program, a set of tests is carried out in the amount of 10-30 pieces, including tests of the initial components of the charge, the charge itself, green and fired pellets, mixing parameters, pelletizing and firing. During the tests, several types of charges are made for the production of green pellets that differ in properties (iron content, specific surface area, particle size distribution), type of components (with the addition of limestone, fuel, organic matter), their quantity (different consumption of each component) and basicity modulus. The resulting green pellets from different types of charges are subjected to heat treatment in a laboratory setup with various temperature and gas-dynamic modes simulating all zones of the technological process of obtaining pellets from drying to cooling. The next stage involves assessing the physical, chemical and metallurgical properties of the fired pellets obtained from various batches and under various firing conditions. Samples corresponding to the highest quality characteristics of the product are determined, and repeated tests are carried out with a given batch composition and firing parameters to confirm the characteristics obtained. After confirming the results obtained, based on the data obtained on the time of the thermal firing process, temperature and gas-dynamic characteristics, the sintering area of the firing machine for a given production volume, productivity, pellet quality and the required equipment composition are determined. annex1

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